Women in Fashion Photography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Women in Fashion Photography - Essay Example The essay "Women in Fashion Photography" discovers the Women in the Fashion Photography. Fashion photography is more than a photograph showing the clothes,accessories or the model, it is the creation of a fantasy. It embodies the fashion atmosphere of the moment and the mood of the time in a single image. It is an image that conveys a particular lifestyle,and is different from catalogue photography, which is intended to directly sell clothes. In a catalogue shot, a woman is shaped closer to real proportions in realistic settings, in keeping with the intent of direct marketing, and she looks, albeit a little blankly, at the viewer. In a whole lot of fashion photography, however, the idea is far beyond clothes, it is about a particular fashion orientation, and so the model is fantastical in keeping with the image to be conveyed. She often looks away from the camera, in affected disdain for the women who are looking at her from across a magazine page, unendowed by her attributes that ar e matchless in drawing the â€Å"male gaze†.Good fashion photography is more like a short film, it needs an ambience and a dream, a concept that evolves, and originality and good co-ordination between a whole team of creative people, where the entire look is contrived to a particular attitude or aesthetic. The make-up artists and lighting effects contribute as much to it as the model who provides a blank canvas for the image, and the photographer, who provides the eye through which it is to be viewed. "We're all brought up on fabulously glamourous Vogue models, and we don't realise that they don't look like that in real life. It is just that the photographers are terribly clever. Women are constantly presented with a false image of beauty that nobody can attain, not even the most beautiful, unless you've got an entourage of make up, wardrobe and hair backing you upI really resent the pressure put on women to alter ourselves" ( Donohoe, 2001) As fashion photographer Cecil Beaton once summed it up, "Fashion photography is an insidious profession.... It is up to the fashion photographer to create an illusion... it makes the observer see what he should see." With few exceptions, it is not true to life, as documentary or journalistic photographs usually is, nor is the persona projected real, as in the case of portrait photography. The female body is mainly intended to seduce, to arouse envy and a desire in the audience to become like the woman in the photograph by evoking the feeling one will experience when one uses the featured product. The body in all its glory is made to represent the things the audience does not have, but needs to acquire in order to be as fashionable as the model, and thus encourage the audience to become consumers. With the advent of technology, a majority of fashion photos that portray women with "perfect" bodies are enhanced by modern technology to achieve the effect. "Photographs are airbrushed or otherwise altered to remove any lines, bumps, or lumps - anything less than "perfection." If the ideal of beauty is physically unattainable, then consumers will never be able to attain the image they want, and therefore there will be an endless demand for new beauty products. This is the reason for the incredible proliferation of the weight-loss, fashion, and cosmetics industries, which are among the largest and

Constitutional and Administrative Law of UK Essay

Constitutional and Administrative Law of UK - Essay Example The researcher states that Constitutional Conventions are similar in nature to Customs. They are followed by the State but there is no such mandate which specifically allows for their implementation. However, even though there is no specific law which demands their implementation, they are considered to be an integral part of the idea of Constitution, and through such believes they are practised by the people of the State. â€Å"Dicey defined Constitutional Conventions as Ê ºÃ¢â‚¬ ¦. rules for determining the mode in which the discretionary powers of the Crown (or ministers or servants of the Crown) ought to be exercised. Furthermore, he stated that conventions are constitutional rules, which are not laws in the strict sense which are designed to control the use of discretionary power by the Crown.† Such conventions form an integral part of the State machinery along with the practise of the Constitution. â€Å"A convention is an accepted way in which things are done. They ar e not written down in law but tend to be old, established practices – the way they have always been done. Though these conventions are not set in legal stone, their very existence over the years has invariably lead to the smooth operation of government.† Conventions are distinct from law as they are positive political morality and should be put to place in order to secure the verdict of the electorate. â€Å"It is a convention that if something in government goes wrong, the cabinet will all sing the same song and support the minister who may be receiving all manner of criticism from the media.†... the Constitution about the way a State is supposed to divide its powers between the three organs namely the Judiciary, the Legislature and the Executive. The Legislature is designed to frame laws which have to be implemented by the Executive in full force. The legislation exercises its right through the implementation of the policies of the conventions. The executive has the responsibility of executing the policies which have been created by the Legislature in lieu of the will of the people. â€Å"It is a convention that the queen will accept the legislation passed by the government. In the past, the fear of what happened to Charles I has usually ensured a harmonious relationship between monarch and Parliament! When Charles II became king in 1660, the rule of thumb was for Parliament to give the king enough money per year to maintain a royal lifestyle but for him not to get involved in politics. This worked tolerably well and monarchs and Parliament had usually worked well since the n especially as Parliament held the monarch’s purse. Now in the C21st, it is just accepted that the queen will give parliamentary legislation the Royal Assent. It is almost beyond belief that she would not do so – the constitutional crisis this would create would be huge.† Deriving from the above point of view, all the actions in the exercise of sovereignty are defined within the realms of constitutional conventions. By not having a written Constitution, the State of England has always been in the situation to exercise the fundamentals of the Constitution through these conventions. Through this method the conventions are the main link which connects the will of the people with the Constitutional mandate. The will of the electorate has to be upheld and followed in strict measures and the

Nurses' Use of Water-Filled Gloves in Preventing Heel Pressure Essay

Nurses' Use of Water-Filled Gloves in Preventing Heel Pressure Ulcer in the University college hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria - Essay Example The interpretations considers the limitations cited by the researcher. When pick samples data organization was considered. â€Å"†¦ two units and who met the inclusion criteria constitute the study participants† (Polit & Beck, 2014, p. 473) The evidence given was the numeric data collected from the pick sample. The participant in the sample provided a rigid support for the results.† †¦have never used it in spite of its availability and common use as submitted bya nurse in one of the wards† (Adejumo &Ingwu, 2010 P. 474) The findings from the study were explained in light of other previous studies. â€Å"This is in support of Watson (19), who maintained that unless a nurse learns from experience, the learning is not good (Adejumo &Ingwu, 2010 p.476) In some instances, the researchers made some indefensible spontaneous inferences. â€Å"†¦ which does not make it scientific and as such lacks basis for clinical decision making.† (Adejumo &Ingwu, 2010 p.476) The rationales for rejecting alternatives were defective in that research involves search of information from a variety of sources.† In hypothesis testing, researchers assume that the null hypothesis is true and then gather evidence to disprove it.† (Polit & Beck, 2014, P. 230) The interpretation accounted for precision of the results. â€Å"In our study, the probability of obtaining a value of 71.0% female by chance alone was less than 1 in 10,000.† (Polit & Beck, 2014, p.230) The researchers pointed out the differences between practical and statistical significance. â€Å"†¦they are not well-suited for testing actual research hypotheses about the absence of relationships between variables or about equivalence between groups.† (Polit & Beck, 2014, P. 258) Some unwarranted generalization was evident in the results of the research. â€Å"Although it is difficult to depend on the rating of nurses based simply on their perception, success or failure of WFGs in prevention of heel PUs is difficult to

Butler Lumber Company Essay Example for Free

Butler Lumber Company Essay I. Statement of Financial Problem Butler Lumber Company is facing the internal risk of not having enough borrowing power to continue operations as desired. The owner of the company has established a relationship with a new bank to increase their borrowing power, however, based on Butler Lumber Company’s past Operating Statement and Balance Sheet, the company is expecting to continue substantial growth without considering external risks that may affect their business. Currently the company requires debt to maintain daily operations and growth. II. General Framework for Financial Analysis A company should maintain higher liquidity ratios that will sustain operating activities and desired growth, as well as allow the company to pay any short-term debt obligations. One way to maintain higher liquidity ratios is to collect on receivables timely, and use cash obtained to take advantage of discounts offered on inventory purchases. Additionally, a company’s inventory should turn several times per year. As sales are forecasted a company should increase their inventory to accommodate forecasted sales on a monthly basis, but keep as little as possible on hand. Ideally, inventory would turn 10-12 times per year. III. Application of the Financial Framework Butler Lumber Company has experienced significant growth over the last few years. Their pricing has remained competitive compared to similarly available product. The company expects to continue growing at this level and to do so, requires the availability of credit from their bank to maintain current and increased inventory levels and to cover operating expenses. Butler Lumber Company maintains a high level of inventory. Essentially, the company is leveraging their credit and using that to maintain their high inventory levels. As the company grows, their inventory purchases should be  based on their forecasted monthly sales. In 1990 their inventory was turning 4.67 times per year, or every 2.5 months. While continued growth may make this feel necessary, the company has failed to consider external risk factors that could affect their business drastically. While they’re sales are driven by not only new home construction, but home repairs as well, in the event of an economic crisis home repairs would likely decrease. As a result, Butler Lumber Company would have a substantial amount of wasted inventory on hand. Butler Lumber Company’s sales have increased, however so have their receivables. With receivables sitting uncollected for 42 days, the company is unable to use that cash to pay their outstanding payables with discounts or cover their operating costs without incurring debt. Finally, the company’s liquidity ratios support their need for better cash management. Their current ratio suggest the company is solvent and would be able to cover their short-term liabilities if needed. However, the quick ratio for the company is very low year after year. Their cash on hand would not cover their short-term liabilities. IV. Assumptions and Special/Mitigating Circumstances No assumptions were made in this analysis. The company’s financial statements clearly state their condition. Recommendations are based on that information. V. Conclusions and Recommendations Butler Lumber Company should monitor their inventory levels closely and maintain only the inventory required to get them through 1 to 1.5 months of sales. They should also employ an aggressive collections team to assist with collecting within the terms of payment outlined in customer agreements.

How The Nuclear Agenda Influenced American Popular Culture History Essay

How The Nuclear Agenda Influenced American Popular Culture History Essay August 6th, 1945, ushered in the beginning of a new era, one to be forever known as the Atomic Age. The dropping of the worlds first atom bomb over Hiroshima signalled a defining moment in human history. From that moment on the nuclear agenda would come to influence not only international affairs, but the everyday lives of people all around the world. The 17 year period from 1945-62 saw huge changes for American society, in particular the development and expansion of popular culture. How in fact popular culture was influenced by this new nuclear agenda holds the basis for this essay. It will focus on both the direct influences of a new atomic culture, as well as the indirect influences that a new nuclear world had on the popular arts. For the purpose of this essay it is essential to have a working definition for popular culture, in this instance popular culture will be defined as a commercial culture based on popular tastes. From Hollywood movies to comic books, a new nuclear technol ogy became an important characteristic in portraying the lives of everyday Americans. Along with a new kind of nuclear diplomacy theses influences would show themselves in some of the greatest pieces of twentieth century popular culture. What this meant for a nuclear generation and how it showed the signs of a cultural revival will be additional themes to explore. The atomic bomb revolutionised American life. In all areas economic, social, political it challenged old assumptions and forced reconsideration of accepted standards (Winkler, 1999: 9). The dropping of the first atomic bomb on that historic day insured at least one thing, a changed world. Rosenblatt neatly describes it, as a moment where nothing has ever been the same since. From that moment everything changed: subsequent wars, subsequent peace, art, culture, the position of science, the role of the military, international politics, and the conduct of lives; all changed. Other ages in history were characterized by heroes or by ideas. The atomic age is characterized by a weapon and a threat. (Rosenblatt, 2005:1) The end to fighting in World War II brought a period of relative peace in which popular culture was allowed to flourish. Boyer (1985) reveals that this new popular culture encompassed most areas of recreational life, although there were many alterations in interests and tastes. During the 50s and 60s particularly, popular culture appealed to a younger generation who had become an increasingly significant social group. Rock nRoll had become the main focal point for a young generation, and the novel realization of breaking away from childhood, caused the teenagers to become a defined social group in their own right. Teenagers began to reject the old fashioned attitudes and conventions of their parents and rebel against conformity. As stated by Shapiro (2002) this new generation of teenagers started developing a culture from the American teenage way of life, and alongside the behaviour got themselves part-time jobs to help them earn money to spend on movies, fashion, music and other ent ertainment. Boyer (1985) agrees adding that teenagers could now secure a good amount of money for their wants and needs like making trips to the movies and the purchasing of commercial goods, which became big business for the advertisement and film industries, which duly swooped in on their opportunities. Films which were produced and targeted by the teenage audience solely served to unite the teenage image more extensively. With films like Rebel without a Cause (1954) and The Wild One (1953) movies presented a separate image for the teenage rebel. The indirect effect of a growing nuclear agenda, seemingly allowed a world free from direct military conflict to find its voice again. War time popular culture had been heavily centred around the war effort, yet in this brief period popular culture begun to revolutionise. It became increasingly important for a post World War II America to enjoy this time of relative peace. Subsequently this saw a huge rise in a new consumerism in which tr ends and fashions; that had seemingly been put on hold during the war years, could dominate popular culture once again. The changing dynamics of a nuclear agenda began to have a more direct influence on popular culture, this period created what Zeman and Admundson (2004) call the early atomic culture. This distinct period saw an escalation in the nuclear agendas influence on the shaping of popular culture. Both the enthusiasm and fear surrounding new nuclear weapons would be portrayed in this expansive new arena. From the secrecy of the Manhattan Project to its introduction on a world stage in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, this new technology offset an atomic culture. It would be wrong to say that after its first military use the bomb became a subject for fear and anxiety. In truth the majority of Americans at that time were unaware nuclear weapons even existed. For many this was the weapon that had ended the war, saved thousands of American lives and brought forward a longed for epoch of peace. As Winkler agrees, Americans first reaction overwhelmingly was one of euphoria and the bomb became celebrated in popular culture in a well-liked country western song, When the Atom Bomb Fell, recorded in December 1945, which attested to this view as it declared the bomb the answer to our fighting prayers boys(in Zeman and Amundson, 2004:3). Many Americans set aside lurking fears of the new nuclear weapon as they contemplated the golden age of abundance that beckoned after World War II. They were further persuaded by the speeches of President Truman who hailed the atomic bomb as a god given tremendous discovery and one to bring together one human community. Others like David Lilienthal where also quick to speak out over the limitless beneficial applications of atomic energy (Winkler, 1999: 137). The atomic bomb continued throughout the period to be closely linked with its positive benefits and government programs attempted to educate the public about the science behind the bomb. An educational video produced by none other than Walt Disney was commissioned in 1957 entitled Our Friend the Atom, which attempted to demonstrate the benefits of the nuclear age and the wonder of this new technology. This film was shown in schools throughout America and became increasingly significant in showing nuclear power in a favourable lig ht. Other videos such as A is for Atom sponsored and paid for by General Electric were also produced to try and help explain the benefits of nuclear technology. This is not to say that the dropping of the bomb in Hiroshima went unnoticed. As mention by Gamson; H.V.Kaltenborn, the dean of radio news commentators, warned his NBC audience on the very same day, For all we know we have created a Frankenstein! We must assume that with the passage of only a little time, an improved form of the new weapon we use today can be turned against us. (1987:15) The continued promotion of the nuclear agenda also expanded to the American commercial markets, and the wonders of the bomb became tied in with consumerism. 1946 saw the General Mills Corporation expansion into Atomic Bomb Rings with the Kix cereal boxtop. Advertised as a gleaming aluminium warhead, see real atoms SPLIT cried the advert, and some 750,000 American children inundated General Mills for their own Atomic Bomb Ring. Boyer (1985) identifies this move from a promotional premium, to that which actually premeditated several cultural themes that would obsess America in the years ahead. Another example from Boyer reveals that only days after the dropping of the bomb on Hiroshima, retail shops were offering atomic sales and products offering atomic results. (1985: 9) This type of cultural consumerism seems void of the true fear that would come to surround the nuclear agenda. Instead it highlights the apparent ease into which America welcomed the birth of the atomic bomb; although this was not always the case. This period in American history coincided with attempts at a new world order and the emergence of the United States as a global superpower. Political, social, economic and ideological issues became not only domestic but international issues. The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan in particular were set up to help fund an American friendly Europe. The movement of the nuclear agenda began to change with the American foreign policy of Containment, an uneasy separation both geographically and ideological, which would see Churchill talk up fears of an Iron Curtain. These international fears would spark a concern of a superpower rivalry and after the Soviet tests of 1949; two countries with conflicting ideologies now had the most destructive weapon ever invented. Hollywood was quick in using the new found nuclear agenda for film ideas. The Manhattan project was dramatized in the 1947 film The Beginning or the End, one of the first of several films on the subject. The film tackled the creation of the atomic bomb and its subsequent use in both Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Filmmakers saw this new nuclear agenda, as a story waiting to be told. One of the trailers produced at the time to promote the film showed an interviewer asking movie goers for their thoughts on what theyd just seen. You cant ignore this picture one women said and the most important motion picture I have ever seen said another. These along with taglines such as the men, the magic the machines saw an increased interest in the development of the bomb. The subject matter was of course both dramatic and dangerously fascinating to a new generation. It talked about the secrecy behind the Manhattan Project and the destructive power behind the bomb. It led many to pose questions in particu lar like that within the films title; was this the beginning or the end? The film industry could now see the need and want of the people to know about the bomb. Much of the film was of course a sensationalised view, and alot of what the Manhattan Project was actually about was unknown by those making the films. Although the sentiment and an increased interest around the bomb would see that the nuclear agenda would continue to influence film. A particular genre within Hollywood that would see a rise in popularity at this time was film noir. As Kakutani identifies in the wake of World War II and with anxieties created by the dawning of the atomic age, film noir a sometimes nihilistic genre became galvanised. The likes of Kiss Me Deadly and Fallen Angel found success at the box office. The genre with its partiality to outsiders and deeply rebellious themes inevitably appeared and emblematized at a time of deep stress. (2001: 1) These kinds of Hollywood films began to show a prevailing attitude that the nuclear agenda had brought about. Hunner (in Zeman and Amundson) describes the nuclear agenda as a totally new age, one full of promise and peril. People searched for a new way of living under this new age thus creating this new culture. And the reason why the nuclear agenda began to find its way into popular culture had a lot to do with the changing nature of nuclear importance. From the creation of the atom bomb moving to the advances with the first nuclear power plant, the science behind the bomb began to spread to new technologies. Nuclear powered aeroplanes and submarines were just some of the uses that that the Unites States found for nuclear energy. Even with these new advances a key turning point for the bomb would come in 1949. Zeman and Amundson (2004) identify this development from the early atomic culture morphing into the high atomic culture of 1949 to 1963. The following years were seemingly different from the earlier phases, as one key turning point would stress. This period saw the American nuclear mo nopoly which had been expected to last until the 1960s, come to an abrupt end in August of 1949. The Soviets after Hiroshima had been working from the American design to build an atom bomb for itself, and the first Soviet test in Kazakhstan steppe signalled a build up of arms. The Soviet atomic test ensured a changing nuclear agenda from the wonder of technology to a characterization of an enemy. A two superpower world would change the very nature of popular culture. The change in nuclear agenda saw an alteration in the types of films being produced in Hollywood. In the 1950s and 1960s, a number of movies attempted to make social commentaries on the war. As Day reveals Films like On the Beach, Fail Safe and The Bedford Incident all took a grim tone about humanitys future, wagging a finger at world leaders who held the fate of the world in their hands and implying that words like democracy and communism had little meaning when the world was teetering on the brink of Armageddon. (Day, 2004: 1). The shift in agenda also introduced the introduction of the B movies which entertained the fear of mutilation. Films such as Them where giant ants mutated by atomic radiation threaten US cities in the South West, and Attack of the Crab Monster were becoming increasingly popular to an American audience. The links to events in the international community such as the nuclear accident in Castle Bravo and Chelyabinsk in 1957 brought about a sense of anxiety. The idea of being exposed to dangerous levels of radiation further influenced the idea of mutation. One of the most recognised films of this period and one that would inspire numerous re-makes was Godzilla. The original Hollywood version in 1954 is considered to be the correspondence of the nuclear weapons which were dropped in Japan. The film unlike its B movie counterparts had a bigger budget and became instantly popular. Other films such as Mickey Rooneys Atomic Kid (1954) which appeared to disassociate the potential of nuclear radiation, failed to do so well at the box office. Later films such as Dr Strangelove would also focus on the idea of a doomsday advice. Other signs that showed the increasing significance of the nuclear agenda were no more apparent than in the Laurel and Hardy motion picture Atoll K. A well loved and admire comedy duo choose for their last screen outing to portray a shipwreck on an island rich in Uranium deposits. It was a far cry from there simplistic and po pular humour which had served them well earlier in their careers. In truth Hollywood had become infiltrated by a collection of A and B movies each adding their representations to the nuclear agenda. As well as Hollywood films the American Civil Defence began producing advice videos such as Burt the Turtle and Duck for Cover. They were clearly designed to help to combat the fear of nuclear catastrophe, and were used to reassure the general public about the dangers of nuclear weapons. They would usually involve drills for mass departure to fallout shelters, and popularized the likes of Duck and Cover. The drills with their indications of dissonantly empty streets and the hiding activity from the nuclear bomb under the schoolroom desk, would later could turn into symbols of the expected inescapable and popular fate formed by those weapons. Most Americans were affected by these videos, especially amongst those in the richer classes who could afford the back-yard fallout shelters which offered a diminutive protection from the direct attack and could keep away from the wind-blown fallout, for some days or weeks. Popular culture within America increased extensively in the early 1950s and 60s, with widespread tensions growing amongst segregated groups in society. The cultural significance of such movements as the non violent rebellion 1955-60, brought the hope of peace and equality for many Americans. The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the influence of charismatic race leaders such as Martin Luther King promoted the need for non-violence; such a belief directly opposed the violent and intermediating prospect of nuclear war. As King himself was quoted in a speech denouncing atomic warfare entitled Time to Break Silence, Communism will never be defeated by the use of atomic bombs or nuclear weapons. These are days which demand wise restraint and calm reasonableness. Whilst King was a strong figure fighting for an end to segregation and civil rights the effect of the nuclear agenda was still quite evident in all aspects of American life. Fairclough points out if it were not for the nuclear agenda; th e case and call for civil rights might have been addressed a generation earlier. (2001: 249) The effect of previous atomic tests and the sight of great chemical explosions found itself positioned in kitsch art. Titus (in Zeman and Amundson) recognises how the mushroom served as symbol for weapons themselves. Pictures on the nuclear weapons never became public until 1960 and even those were only the mock-ups for the Fat Man and the Little Boy. Diagrams of the bombs interior working have been obtainable only for the last few years since design for nuclear weapons became the most strictly guarded secret. These all had an impact of fear on society has well as the nuclear diplomacy that developed between the United States and the Soviet Union. The nuclear agenda found itself quickly ingrained within American life. The nuclear agenda that followed the end of fighting in WWII took on a life of its own, and yet was not the first time popular culture had embraced nuclear technology. Ironically the first reference to the nuclear agenda comes not after its first military use but it can be traced back to 1908 in H.G Wells, The War in the Air as well as his subsequently work The World Set Free. The novels first explored the prospect of a nuclear holocaust and an atomic bomb that would be used in war. Perhaps even more telling was the influence it would have on one Leo Szilard. The nuclear agenda might have started life as science fiction but its influence would most definitely lead to science fact. At a time of a new found fascination in the science behind the bomb, it would seem inevitable that the science fiction genre would experience an increased popularity, and it did. Suddenly the question of what the future might hold, the question of what if, gained a horrible new importance. Now, instead of l ooking a thousand years ahead, humanity was looking at the hands of a Doomsday Clock that were edging closer to midnight. (Plested, 2009:1). Nuclear weapons would become a fastener element in the science fiction novels. The phrase atomic bomb predated their continuation when scientist had realized the ending of radioactivity had a potential implication of limitless energy. Until then, the word atomic had been nothing more than a convenient gimmick in science fiction, a buzzword that provided power for everything from pistols to robots to spaceships. Once the atomic bomb had been used, it proved this scientific leap forward, a leap which proved that science fiction authors were not such wild-eyed dreamers as had been thought' (Plested, 2009: 1). However, the science fiction novels began to follow and treat the threat of potential nuclear fallout and its implications for society. Newman, K. (2000) notes the various popular novels like the Babylon, Alas and On the Beach reviewed the af termath of the nuclear war. Other science fiction novels like A Canticle for Leibowitz exposed the long-standing consequences of a nuclear war. Hand in hand with the immediate perils of thermonuclear death, science fiction introduced the public to the other horsemen of the new Apocalypse: Fallout, Nuclear Winter, and Mutation. The latter provided heady fare for the filmmakers of the 1950s, with screens filled with shambling monstrosities of every shape, size and species. (Plested, 2009:1) The crisis of the Cold War coincided with the emergence of the Television, it grew in stature and with the growth of consumerism by the 1950s the TV quickly became a technological novelty an inescapable medium that quickly rivalled the power of movies, radio and mass circulation magazines (Whifield, 1991:153). In 1946 around 7000 American owned their own television set and by 1960, 50 million sets had been purchased and over 530 stations were available by 1961. Yet the reality of nuclear weapons haunted not just photographs and newsreels of Hiroshima and Nagasaki but visions of the future. In 1950 LIFE predicted the growing likelihood of World War III in the essay How U.S. Cities Cab Prepare for Atomic War. Colliers described a hypothetical atomic attack on New York in Hiroshima U.S.A: Can anything be done about it? (Boyd, 1985: 23) Nuclear anxieties boosted the popularity of psychoanalysis an probed the subconscious. Signs of the impacted nuclear agenda also found their way into the music industry. Many songs such as Skip Stanleys Satellite Baby pleaded: Nuclear baby dont fission out on mewere gonna rock it, were gonna rock it.Isotope daddys found out what you are worth. As well as the likes of Bob Dylan with his 1962 song A Hard Rains Gonna fail which was thought to have alluded to an upsurge in the possibility of a nuclear fallout. Through the progression of the nuclear period protest songs in particular became more frequent, such as 99 red balloons, and Relax by Frankie Goes To Hollywood. These songs became opposition against a nuclear build up and warning songs while others utilized the theme like allusion to a huge destruction in general. This period also began to see the rise in the popularity of tranquillity organizations such as the CND. Newman, K. (2000) said the CND (Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament) was one of the principle organizations campaigning in opposition to the bomb. Its symbo l, a grouping of the semaphone symbols for D (disarmament) and N (nuclear) came into the modern culture as icon for peace. 1962 saw a flashpoint in the course of the Cold War, a socialist revolution in Cuba would bring the world closer to nuclear war than ever before. The Cuban Missile Crisis illustrated how fragile the balance between a nuclear war and peace had become. The period of time saw a shift in public opinion towards the bomb, how close the world had come to catastrophe had shown Americans the true terror of a nuclear attack. Popular culture moved into a new era of fear and more open criticism of the nuclear programme (Zeman and Amundson, 2004: 4) The scale of influence the nuclear agenda had on popular culture became elevated as the threat of nuclear war become more possible. The time frame saw a great deal of change within America. It becomes apparent that the early atomic culture had a huge influence on popular culture, but the ways in which it affected it were various to say the least. From civil defence videos to sci-fi b movies, the period generated a phenomenal amount of popular culture. The significance is perhaps the diversity of the materials and the changes the nuclear agenda brought into popular culture. The strength of the nuclear culture insured it was impossible for outlets to ignore, instead the bomb in sorts became commercialised and the threat of apocalypse became a somewhat side point. In truth, it would appear in an era of progression and change the nuclear agenda became quite dominant in popular culture. It affected the lives on not only Americans but those in a global community. The turning point perhaps comes at the end of this period during the 13 days of the Cuban Missile Crisis, where the nuclear agenda hatched up the fear and tensions of an American society who had been blissfully unaware of the true dangers happening behind closed doors.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid or DNA: Defining Our Life Essay -- Biology Scien

Deoxyribonucleic Acid or DNA: Defining Our Life Genetics is defined as the study of heredity. Heredity is controlled by genes, which aid in the development of a cellular organism’s definite characteristics. Such characteristics include sex, hair color, eye color, and countless other traits. Genes are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid, more commonly abbreviated as DNA. Deoxyribonucleic acid carries the genetic material for all cellular organisms. These molecules carry the information needed to direct many important processes that take place inside of the cell. This information is vital to the survival and health of the organism. Genetics has a long history filled with numerous different scientists building off of their predecessors’ data in order to form new theories. There are many events and scientists who have been important influences on the study of heredity over time. In 1809, a French biologist, Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, proposed the first complete theory of evolution. He claimed, â€Å"new species originate by natural processes and that man has an ape ancestry† (Bailey 13). His ideas become an important influence on evolutionary thinking for the next one hundred and twenty five years. In 1859, Charles Darwin published his theory of evolution by natural selection called The Origin of the Species. This very controversial work is still the subject of debate over a hundred and forty years later. For this reason, some of the most basic scientific fundamentals remained unnoticed due to the shadow this controversy cast over science. In 1866, Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, publishes his theories of inheritance. His experiments dealt with the inheritance of â€Å"factors† in pea plants. Thes... ...ematical qualities, qualities important enough to play ma major role in a book, a book that has now been made into a college class! Without this tiny molecule, than can be represented in three letters, DNA, life as we know it today would not exist. That is one powerful molecule. Bibliography Lewis, Ricki. Human Genetics. Boston, McGraw-Hill, 2001. Bailey, Jill. Genetics and Evolution: The Molecules of Inheritance. New York, Oxford University Press, 1995. Parkin, David T. An Introduction to Evolutionary Genetics. London, Edward Arnold Publishers, 1979. Ford, E.B. Understanding Genetics. New York, Pica Press, 1979. Hofstadter, Douglas R. Godel, Escher Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid. New York, Basic Books, 1979. Relethford, John H. The Human Species:An Introduction to Biological Anthropology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2003.

Individual Differences

http://www. flatworldknowledge. com/pub/1. 0/organizational-behavior/34685#web-34687 Why Individual Differences Are Important: * Individual differences have a direct effect on behavior * People who perceive things differently behave differently * People with different attitudes respond differently to directives * People with different personalities interact differently with bosses, coworkers, subordinates, and customers * Individual differences help explain: Why some people embrace change and others are fearful of it * Why some employees will be productive only if they are closely supervised, while others will be productive if they are not * Why some workers learn new tasks more effectively than others Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) Cycle * Different people are attracted to different careers and organizations as a function of their own: * abilities * interests * personalities * Organizations select employees on the basis of the needs the organization has * skills and abilities individual attributes such as values and personality * Attrition occurs when: * individuals discover they do not like being part of the organization and elect to resign, or * the organization determines an individual is not succeeding and elects to terminate * Each phase of the ASA cycle is significantly influenced by the individual differences of each person The Basis for Understanding Work Behavior: * To understand individual differences a manager must: 1. observe and recognize the differences and . study relationships between variables that influence behavior Individual Differences Influencing Work Behavior: 1. Hereditary and Diversity Factors 2. Personality 3. Ability and Skills 4. Perception 5. Attitudes Diversity Factors Primary Dimensions (stable) * Age * Ethnicity * Gender * Physical attributes * Race * Sexual / affectional orientation Secondary Dimensions (changeable) * Educational background * Marital status * Religious beliefs * Health * Work experience Abilities and Skil ls Ability – a person’s talent to perform a mental or physical task * Skill – a learned talent that a person has acquired to perform a task KEY ABILITIES: 1. Mental Ability 2. Emotional Intelligence 3. Tacit Knowledge Attitudes * Are determinates of behavior because they are linked with perception, personality, feelings, and motivation * Attitude – a mental state of readiness * learned and organized through experience * exerting a specific response to people, objects, and situations with which it is related Attitudes: Implications for the Manager . Attitudes are learned 2. Attitudes define one’s predispositions toward given aspects of the world 3. Attitudes provide the emotional basis of one’s interpersonal relations and identification with others 4. Attitudes are organized and are close to the core of personality The Three (3) Components of Attitude: 1. Cognition (Beliefs and Values) – My supervisor is unfair. 2. Affect (Feelings and emotions) – I don’t like my supervisor. 3. Behavior (Intended behavior) – I’ve submitted a formal request to transfer. Cognition * What individuals know about themselves and their environment * Implies a conscious process of acquiring knowledge * Evaluative beliefs – favorable or unfavorable impressions that a person holds toward an object or person Affect * The emotional component of an attitude * Often learned from * parents * teachers * peer group members * The part of an attitude that is associated with â€Å"feeling† a certain way about a person, group, or situation Cognitive Dissonance * A discrepancy between attitudes and behaviors A mental state of anxiety * Occurs when there is a conflict among an individual’s various cognitions after a decision has been made Personality * A relatively stable set of feelings and behaviors that have been significantly formed by genetic and environmental factors * The relationship between behavior and personality is one of the most complex matters that managers have to understand * Set of characteristics that underlie a relatively stable p attern of behavior in response to ideas, objects, or people in the environment * Some Major Forces influencing Personality 1. Cultural forces 2. Social class/group membership forces 3. Hereditary forces 4. Family relationship forces PERSONALITY AND BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS The Big Five Personality Dimensions 1. Extroversion 2. Agreeableness 3. Conscientiousness 4. Emotional Stability 5. Openness to Experience How to Identify the Big Five Personality Traits * Extraversion * An extravert is talkative, comfortable, and confident in interpersonal relationships; an introvert is more private, withdrawn and reserved. * Agreeableness An agreeable person is trusting, courteous and helpful, getting along well with others; a disagreeable person is self-serving, skeptical and tough, creating discomfort for others. * Conscientiousness * A conscientious person is dependable, organized, and focused on getting things done; a person who lacks conscientiousness is careless, impulsive, and not achievement oriented. * Emotional Stability * A person who is emotionally stable is secu re, calm, steady, and self-confident; a person lacking emotional stability is excitable, anxious, nervous, and tense. Openness to Experience * A person open to experience is broad-minded, imaginative, and open to new ideas; a person who lacks openness is narrow-minded, has few interests, and resists change. * Authoritarianism * the degree to which a person defers to authority and accepts status differences. * Machiavellianism * the degree to which someone uses power manipulatively. * Locus of control * the extent to which one believes that what happens is within one’s control. * Self-monitoring * the degree to which someone is able to adjust behavior in response to xternal factors. Emotional Intelligence (EQ) Basic Components * Self-awareness: basis for all other components, being aware of what you are feeling * Self-management: control disruptive or harmful emotions and balance one’s moods so they do not cloud thinking * Social awareness: understand others and practic e empathy * Relationship awareness: connect to others, build positive relationships, respond to emotions of others, and influence others Locus of Control * Locus of control of individuals – Determines the degree to which they believe their behaviors influence what happens to them * Internals – believe they are masters of their own fate * Externals – believe they are helpless pawns of fate, success is due to luck or ease of task * Tendency to place primary responsibility for one’s success or failure either within oneself (internally) or on outside forces (externally) * Internal locus of control- your actions influence what happens to you * External locus of control- represents pawns of fate Self-Efficacy Feelings of self-efficacy have managerial and organizational implications: * Selection decisions * Training programs * Goal setting and performance Behaviors Influenced by Personality Authoritarianism = belief that power and status differences should exist within the organization * Machiavellianism = tendency to direct much of one’s behavior toward the acquisition of power and the manipulation of other people for personal gain Individual Differences: Values and Personality ————————————————- LEARNING OBJECTIVES . Understand what values are. 2. Describe the link between values and individual behavior. 3. Identify the major personality traits that are relevant to organizational behavior. 4. Explain the link between personality, work behavior, and work attitudes. 5. Explain the potential pitfalls of personality testing. Values Values  refer to stable life goals that people have, reflecting what is most important to them. Values are established throughout one’s life as a result of the accumulating life experiences and tend to be relatively stable. 138]  The values that are important to people tend to affect the types of decisions they make, how they perceive their environment, and their actual behaviors. Moreover, people are more likely to accept job offers when the company possesses the values people care about. [139]  Value attainment is one reason why people stay in a company, and when an organization does not help them attain their values, they are more likely to decide to leave if they are dissatisfied with the job itself. [140] What are the values people care about? There are many typologies of values. One of the most established surveys to assess individual values is the Rokeach Value Survey. [141]  This survey lists 18 terminal and 18 instrumental values in alphabetical order. Terminal values  refer to end states people desire in life, such as leading a prosperous life and a world at peace. Instrumental values  deal with views on acceptable modes of conduct, such as being honest and ethical, and being ambitious. According to Rokeach, values are arranged in hierarchical fashion. In other words, an accurate way of assessing someone’s values is to ask them to rank the 36 values in order of importance. By comparing these values, people develop a sense of which value can be sacrificed to achieve the other, and the individual priority of each value emerges. Where do values come from? Research indicates that they are shaped early in life and show stability over the course of a lifetime. Early family experiences are important influences over the dominant values. People who were raised in families with low socioeconomic status and those who experienced restrictive parenting often display conformity values when they are adults, while those who were raised by parents who were cold toward their children would likely alue and desire security. [142] Values of a generation also change and evolve in response to the historical context that the generation grows up in. Research comparing the values of different generations resulted in interesting findings. For example, Generation Xers (those born between the mid-1960s and 1980s) are more individualistic and are interested in working toward organi zational goals so long as they coincide with their personal goals. This group, compared to the baby boomers (born between the 1940s and 1960s), is also less likely to see work as central to their life and more likely to desire a quick promotion. 143] Values will affect the choices people make. For example, someone who has a strong stimulation orientation may pursue extreme sports and be drawn to risky business ventures with a high potential for payoff. The values a person holds will affect his or her employment. For example, someone who has an orientation toward strong stimulation may pursue extreme sports and select an occupation that involves fast action and high risk, such as fire fighter, police officer, or emergency medical doctor. Someone who has a drive for achievement may more readily act as an entrepreneur. Moreover, whether individuals will be satisfied at a given job may depend on whether the job provides a way to satisfy their dominant values. Therefore, understanding employees at work requires understanding the value orientations of employees. Personality Personality  encompasses the relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioral patterns a person has. Our personality differentiates us from other people, and understanding someone’s personality gives us clues about how that person is likely to act and feel in a variety of situations. In order to effectively manage organizational behavior, an understanding of different employees’ personalities is helpful. Having this knowledge is also useful for placing people in jobs and organizations. If personality is stable, does this mean that it does not change? You probably remember how you have changed and evolved as a result of your own life experiences, attention you received in early childhood, the style of parenting you were exposed to, successes and failures you had in high school, and other life events. In fact, our personality changes over long periods of time. For example, we tend to become more socially dominant, more conscientious (organized and dependable), and more emotionally stable between the ages of 20 and 40, whereas openness to new experiences may begin to decline during this same time. [144]  In other words, even though we treat personality as relatively stable, changes occur. Moreover, even in childhood, our personality shapes who we are and has lasting consequences for us. For example, studies show that part of our career success and job satisfaction later in life can be explained by our childhood personality. 145] Is our behavior in organizations dependent on our personality? To some extent, yes, and to some extent, no. While we will discuss the effects of personality for employee behavior, you must remember that the relationships we describe are modest correlations. For example, having a sociable and outgoing personality may encourage people to seek friends and prefer social situations. This does not mean that their person ality will immediately affect their work behavior. At work, we have a job to do and a role to perform. Therefore, our behavior may be more strongly affected by what is expected of us, as opposed to how we want to behave. When people have a lot of freedom at work, their personality will become a stronger influence over their behavior. [146] Big Five Personality Traits How many personality traits are there? How do we even know? In every language, there are many words describing a person’s personality. In fact, in the English language, more than 15,000 words describing personality have been identified. When researchers analyzed the terms describing personality characteristics, they realized that there were many words that were pointing to each dimension of personality. When these words were grouped, five dimensions seemed to emerge that explain a lot of the variation in our personalities. [147]  Keep in mind that these five are not necessarily the only traits out there. There are other, specific traits that represent dimensions not captured by the Big Five. Still, understanding the main five traits gives us a good start for describing personality. A summary of the Big Five traits is presented in  Figure  3. , â€Å"Big Five Personality Traits†. Openness  is the degree to which a person is curious, original, intellectual, creative, and open to new ideas. People high in openness seem to thrive in situations that require being flexible and learning new things. They are highly motivated to learn new skills, and they do well in training settings. [148]  They also have a n advantage when they enter into a new organization. Their open-mindedness leads them to seek a lot of information and feedback about how they are doing and to build relationships, which leads to quicker adjustment to the new job. 149]When supported, they tend to be creative. [150]  Open people are highly adaptable to change, and teams that experience unforeseen changes in their tasks do well if they are populated with people high in openness. [151]  Compared to people low in openness, they are also more likely to start their own business. [152] Conscientiousness  refers to the degree to which a person is organized, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented, and dependable. Conscientiousness is the one personality trait that uniformly predicts how high a person’s performance will be, across a variety of occupations and jobs. 153]  In fact, conscientiousness is the trait most desired by recruiters and results in the most success in interviews. [154]  This is not a s urprise, because in addition to their high performance, conscientious people have higher levels of motivation to perform, lower levels of turnover, lower levels of absenteeism, and higher levels of safety performance at work. [155]One’s conscientiousness is related to career success and being satisfied with one’s career over time. [156]  Finally, it seems that conscientiousness is a good trait to have for entrepreneurs. Highly conscientious people are more likely to start their own business compared to those who are not conscientious, and their firms have longer survival rates. [157] Extraversion  is the degree to which a person is outgoing, talkative, and sociable, and enjoys being in social situations. One of the established findings is that they tend to be effective in jobs involving sales. [158]  Moreover, they tend to be effective as managers and they demonstrate inspirational leadership behaviors. [159]  Extraverts do well in social situations, and as a result they tend to be effective in job interviews. Part of their success comes from how they prepare for the job interview, as they are likely to use their social network. [160]  Extraverts have an easier time than introverts when adjusting to a new job. They actively seek information and feedback, and build effective relationships, which helps with their adjustment. [161]Interestingly, extraverts are also found to be happier at work, which may be because of the relationships they build with the people around them and their relative ease in adjusting to a new job. 162]  However, they do not necessarily perform well in all jobs, and jobs depriving them of social interaction may be a poor fit. Moreover, they are not necessarily model employees. For example, they tend to have higher levels of absenteeism at work, potentially because they may miss work to hang out with or attend to the needs of their friends. [163] Agreeableness  is the degree to which a person is nice, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm. In other words, people who are high in agreeableness are likeable people who get along with others. Not surprisingly, agreeable people help others at work consistently, and this helping behavior is not dependent on being in a good mood. [164]  They are also less likely to retaliate when other people treat them unfairly. [165]  This may reflect their ability to show empathy and give people the benefit of the doubt. Agreeable people may be a valuable addition to their teams and may be effective leaders because they create a fair environment when they are in leadership positions. [166]  At the other end of the spectrum, people low in agreeableness are less likely to show these positive behaviors. Moreover, people who are not agreeable are shown to quit their jobs unexpectedly, perhaps in response to a conflict they engage with a boss or a peer. [167]  If agreeable people are so nice, does this mean that we should only look for agreeable people when hiring? Some jobs may actually be a better fit for someone with a low level of agreeableness. Think about it: When hiring a lawyer, would you prefer a kind and gentle person, or a pit bull? Also, high agreeableness has a downside: Agreeable people are less likely to engage in constructive and change-oriented communication. 168]  Disagreeing with the status quo may create conflict and agreeable people will likely avoid creating such conflict, missing an opportunity for constructive change. Neuroticism  refers to the degree to which a person is anxious, irritable, aggressive, temperamental, and moody. These people have a tendency to have emotional adjustment problems and experience stress and depression on a habitual basis. Peo ple very high in neuroticism experience a number of problems at work. For example, they are less likely to be someone people go to for advice and friendship. 169]  In other words, they may experience relationship difficulties. They tend to be habitually unhappy in their jobs and report high intentions to leave, but they do not necessarily actually leave their jobs. [170]  Being high in neuroticism seems to be harmful to one’s career, as they have lower levels of career success (measured with income and occupational status achieved in one’s career). Finally, if they achieve managerial jobs, they tend to create an unfair climate at work. [171] Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Aside from the Big Five personality traits, perhaps the most well-known and most often used personality assessment is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Unlike the Big Five, which assesses traits, MBTI measures types. Assessments of the Big Five do not classify people as neurotic or extravert: It is all a matter of degrees. MBTI on the other hand, classifies people as one of 16 types. [172]  In MBTI, people are grouped using four dimensions. Based on how a person is classified on these four dimensions, it is possible to talk about 16 unique personality types, such as ESTJ and ISTP. MBTI was developed in 1943 by a mother–daughter team, Isabel Myers and Katherine Cook Briggs. Its objective at the time was to aid World War II veterans in identifying the occupation that would suit their personalities. Since that time, MBTI has become immensely popular, and according to one estimate, around 2. 5 million people take the test annually. The survey is criticized because it relies on types as opposed to traits, but organizations who use the survey find it very useful for training and team-building purposes. More than eighty of the  Fortune  100 companies used Myers-Briggs tests in some form. One distinguishing characteristic of this test is that it is explicitly designed for learning, not for employee selection purposes. In fact, the Myers & Briggs Foundation has strict guidelines against the use of the test for employee selection. Instead, the test is used to provide mutual understanding within the team and to gain a better understanding of the working styles of team members. [173] Positive and Negative Affectivity You may have noticed that behavior is also a function of moods. When people are in a good mood, they may be more cooperative, smile more, and act friendly. When these same people are in a bad mood, they may have a tendency to be picky, irritable, and less tolerant of different opinions. Yet, some people seem to be in a good mood most of the time, and others seem to be in a bad mood most of the time regardless of what is actually going on in their lives. This distinction is manifested by positive and negative affectivity traits. Positive affective people  experience positive moods more frequently, whereas  negative affective peopleexperience negative moods with greater frequency. Negative affective people focus on the â€Å"glass half empty† and experience more anxiety and nervousness. [174]  Positive affective people tend to be happier at work,[175]  and their happiness spreads to the rest of the work environment. As may be expected, this personality trait sets the tone in the work atmosphere. When a team comprises mostly negative affective people, there tend to be fewer instances of helping and cooperation. Teams dominated by positive affective people experience lower levels of absenteeism. 176]  When people with a lot of power are also high in positive affectivity, the work environment is affected in a positive manner and can lead to greater levels of cooperation and finding mutually agreeable solutions to problems. [177] Self-Monitoring Self-monitoring  refers to the extent to which a person is capable of monitoring his or her actions and appearance in social situations. In other words, people who are social monitors are social chameleons w ho understand what the situation demands and act accordingly, while low social monitors tend to act the way they feel. 178]  High social monitors are sensitive to the types of behaviors the social environment expects from them. Their greater ability to modify their behavior according to the demands of the situation and to manage their impressions effectively is a great advantage for them. [179]  In general, they tend to be more successful in their careers. They are more likely to get cross-company promotions, and even when they stay with one company, they are more likely to advance. [180]  Social monitors also become the â€Å"go to† person in their company and they enjoy central positions in their social networks. 181]  They are rated as higher performers, and emerge as leaders. [182]  While they are effective in influencing other people and get things done by managing their impressions, this personality trait has some challenges that need to be addressed. First, w hen evaluating the performance of other employees, they tend to be less accurate. It seems that while trying to manage their impressions, they may avoid giving accurate feedback to their subordinates to avoid confrontations. [183]  This tendency may create problems for them if they are managers. Second, high social monitors tend to experience higher levels of tress, probably caused by behaving in ways that conflict with their true feelings. In situations that demand positive emotions, they may act happy although they are not feeling happy, which puts an emotional burden on them. Finally, high social monitors tend to be less committed to their companies. They may see their jobs as a stepping-stone for greater things, which may prevent them from forming strong attachments and loyalty to their current employer. [184] Proactive Personality Proactive personality  refers to a person’s inclination to fix what is perceived as wrong, change the status quo, and use initiative to so lve problems. Instead of waiting to be told what to do, proactive people take action to initiate meaningful change and remove the obstacles they face along the way. In general, having a proactive personality has a number of advantages for these people. For example, they tend to be more successful in their job searches. [185]  They are also more successful over the course of their careers, because they use initiative and acquire greater understanding of the politics within the organization. [186]  Proactive people are valuable assets to their companies because they may have higher levels of performance. 187]They adjust to their new jobs quickly because they understand the political environment better and often make friends more quickly. [188]  Proactive people are eager to learn and engage in many developmental activities to improve their skills. [189]  Despite all their potential, under some circumstances a proactive personality may be a liability for an individual or an organization. Imag ine a person who is proactive but is perceived as being too pushy, trying to change things other people are not willing to let go, or using their initiative to make decisions that do not serve a company’s best interests. Research shows that the success of proactive people depends on their understanding of a company’s core values, their ability and skills to perform their jobs, and their ability to assess situational demands correctly. [190] Self-Esteem Self-esteem  is the degree to which a person has overall positive feelings about his or herself. People with high self-esteem view themselves in a positive light, are confident, and respect themselves. On the other hand, people with low self-esteem experience high levels of self-doubt and uestion their self-worth. High self-esteem is related to higher levels of satisfaction with one’s job and higher levels of performance on the job. [191]  People with low self-esteem are attracted to situations in which they will be relatively invisible, such as large companies. [192]Managing employees with low self-esteem may be challenging at times, because negative feedback given with the intention to improve performance may be viewed as a judgment on their worth as an employee. Therefore, effectively managing employees with relatively low self-esteem requires tact and providing lots of positive feedback when discussing performance incidents. Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy  is a belief that one can perform a specific task successfully. Research shows that the belief that we can do something is a good predictor of whether we can actually do it. Self-efficacy is different from other personality traits in that it is job specific. You may have high self-efficacy in being successful academically, but low self-efficacy in relation to your ability to fix your car. At the same time, people have a certain level of generalized self-efficacy and they have the belief that whatever task or hobby they tackle, they are likely to be successful in it. Research shows that self-efficacy at work is related to job performance. [193]  This relationship is probably a result of people with high self-efficacy setting higher goals for themselves and being more committed to these goals, whereas people with low self-efficacy tend to procrastinate. [194]  Academic self-efficacy is a good predictor of your GPA, whether you persist in your studies, or drop out of college. 195] Is there a way of increasing employees’ self-efficacy? Hiring people who are capable of performing their tasks and training people to increase their self-efficacy may be effective. Some people may also respond well to verbal encouragement. By showing that you believe they can be successful and effectively playing the role of a cheerleader, you may be able to increase self-efficacy. G iving people opportunities to test their skills so that they can see what they are capable of doing (or empowering them) is also a good way of increasing self-efficacy. 196] Locus of Control Locus of control deals with the degree to which people feel accountable for their own behaviors. Individuals with high  internal locus of control  believe that they control their own destiny and what happens to them is their own doing, while those with high  external locus of control  feel that things happen to them because of other people, luck, or a powerful being. Internals feel greater control over their own lives and therefore they act in ways that will increase their chances of success. For example, they take the initiative to start mentor-protege relationships. They are more involved with their jobs. They demonstrate higher levels of motivation and have more positive experiences at work. [197]  Interestingly, internal locus is also related to one’s subjective well-being and happiness in life, while being high in external locus is related to a higher rate of depression. [198]  The connection between internal locus of control and health is interesting, but perhaps not surprising. In fact, one study showed that having internal locus of control at the age of ten was related to a number of health outcomes, such as lower obesity and lower blood pressure later in life. [199]  It is possible that internals take more responsibility for their health and adopt healthier habits, while externals may see less of a connection between how they live and their health. Internals thrive in contexts in which they have the ability to influence their own behavior. Successful entrepreneurs tend to have high levels of internal locus of control. [200] Key point: Values and personality traits are two dimensions on which people differ. Values are stable life goals. When seeking jobs, employees are more likely to accept a job that provides opportunities for value attainment, and they are more likely to remain in situations that satisfy their values. Personality comprises the stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioral patterns people have. The Big Five personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) are important traits that seem to be stable and can be generalized to other cultures. Other important traits for work behavior include self-efficacy, self-esteem, social monitoring, proactive personality, positive and negative affectivity, and locus of control. It is important to remember that a person’s behavior depends on the match between the person and the situation. While personality is a strong influence on job attitudes, its relation to job performance is weaker. Some companies use personality testing to screen out candidates. This method has certain limitations, and companies using personality tests